Category Archives: Uncategorized

Hydrostatic Pressure and the Periosteum

Subperiosteal Transmission Of Intra-Articular Pressure Between Articulated And Stationary Joints

“Hydrostatic pressures can be transmitted between synovial capsules. In each of ten rabbits, we simultaneously measured pressure in two joints, one of which was passively ranged, and the other of which was kept stationary. The intra-articular pressure inside the stationary joint changed every time its companion joint was ranged. But the pressure in the stationary joint did not change when the periosteum was transected above the ranged joint. This phenomenon was observed in all four animals that served as their own controls. The study suggests that the intra-articular pressure was transmitted through the space between the periosteum and the bone surface. Alternative explanations, like measurements of venous blood pressure, did not show correlation with hydrostatic pressure changes in the joints. The Floating Skeleton concept suggests a biomechanical rationale for this newly observed phenomenon: that there exists a subperiosteal hydrostatic connection of synovial joints, and that this “net” distributes excess pressures among joints through the periosteal sheath to sustain the integrity of the joint contacting surfaces over a lifetime.”

“correlation between synovial fluid pressure and the pressure in the blood capillary in the synovium”

“intra-articular pressure was transmitted hydrostatically through the subperiosteal space.”

“The subperiosteal fluid can be found in the cambial layer of the periosteum”

So essentially hydrostatic periosteum between the inner bone, the articular cartilage, and the periosteum are connected.

Increase Height And Grow Taller Using Pluripotent Stem Cell Transdifferentiation

The idea I am proposing is something that I am quite sure scientists and researchers around the world have not been able to figure out yet. A guess is that it would take another 20 years of careful research before not only will scientists understand the molecular signaling and mechanisms which cause the process of transdifferentiation, but also how to control the process well enough to turn adult human cells that are completely differentiated into another type of cell.

I am proposing that it will be possible using pluripotent stem cells who are going through transdifferentiation to increase one’s height. First, we review what the process of “transdifferentiation” (source is Wikipedia) is…

“…is a process where one mature somatic cell transforms into another mature somatic cell without undergoing an intermediate pluripotent state or progenitor cell type. It is a type of metaplasia, which includes all cell fate switches, including the interconversion of stem cells. Current uses of transdifferentiation include disease modeling and drug discoveryand in the future may include gene therapy and regenerative medicine…”

I personally got extremely interested in transdifferentiation when I read about how the immortal hydra use this process to reverse in aging and stay biological immortal. I would write two older post about this idea.

The original article that started it all was “Can a Jellyfish Unlock the Secret of Immortality?” published in the New York Times back in November of 2012. It seems that this jellyfish, the Turritopsis nutricula is the only species we know of were the adult of the species can do transdifferentiation.

The usual way that most cells actually change from one type into another is to first dedifferentiate back into the progenitor stem cells which they were derived from. One they are de-differentiated, then they re-differentiate into the other types of cells. This is NOT transdifferentiation. In transdifferentiation, the step where it has to go back and then forward again is removed. The other way, where we induce the cells to go backwards, and then forwards again is known as pluripotent reprogramming, which has its own benefits, strengths, and weakness.

I would rather go for this endeavor, we use transdifferentiation because it allows for shifting for cells who have similar lineages, while for pluripotent reprogramming, the possible combinations which the progenitor cells can go into are limitless. We just want to focus on cartilage cells and bone cells.

Something I would like to point out is that recently I found that one can de-differentiate chondrocytes into fibroblast-like cells automatically and then re-differentiate them back into chondrocytes using the right type of structure, so the structure of the medium which encapsulates the cells can also determine what the cells will turn into.

The main method which transdifferentiation of the cells is possible in the laboratory is by doing something called “Lineage Instructive Approach”

From wikipedia, “In this approach transcription factors from progenitor cells of the target cell type are transfected into a somatic cell to induce transdifferentiation”

So it seems that we determine which types of cells we want to form, and also figure out which are the precursor progenitor cells which create this specific type of cell lineage. We take the transcription factors that are specific to the precursor cells and get them implanted into any type of cell found in the human body. This theoretically should get the overall cell to start to change its identity.

Implications For Height Increase Application

When one day we can induce cells in the adult human tissue like the cortical bone structure to change into chondrocytes, then we would have really developed a very unique idea on how to increase our height, in a very invasive approach. We might be able to just inject the right type of transcription factor to turn the cells that make the bones into the type of cells that make cartilage. With a simple injection, we develop cartilage tissue again where cortical bone was.

Indeed we would still need to possibly increase the osteoclast numbers to start to remove the hard bone matrix as well as inject a certain type of compound, probably thyroxine to get the chondrocytes that are newly formed to be in the right structural alignment.

However the hardest part in my opinion at this point in the research is that we will need to figure out how to change bone cells into cartilage cells in a stable way that won’t just de-differentiate back into bone cells again. Of course, the first step is to get transdifferentiation to be achieved, and that may take over a decade of real research.

Swiss Study Show That Divorced Men Are On Average Shorter Than Their Married Counterparts

I was looking through PubMed today and came across a little interesting article/study which looked at the socio-economic patterns of height. The abstract was the only thing that I could get but it did reveal something a little interesting. It was just a short segment but I do wonder what the implications of something like this would be.

PubMed study: “Taller – Healthier – more equal? The biological standard of living in Switzerland in the second half of the 20th century.”

Econ Hum Biol. 2010 Mar;8(1):67-79. doi: 10.1016/j.ehb.2009.09.002. Epub 2009 Sep 12.
Kues AB.
Source: journals@econhist.de

Abstract

This paper analyzes the trends in physical stature and body mass of the Swiss population born between 1955 and 1985, based on data collected in the “Living in Switzerland Survey” (Swiss Household Panel) of 2004. Aside from the time trend, we investigate the impact of educational and marital status as well as spatial effects on height and BMI. The results corroborate previous studies: average height increased during the second half of the 20th century for both women and men, better educated individuals are tallest, divorced men are shorter than married men and urban populations enjoy a height advantage over rural ones. We also compare the level and the trend in height to other postindustrial populations to identify key causes of physical growth and conclude that the quality of the health care systems and equal access to it seem to have a greater impact than other redistributive aspects of the welfare state. The relatively low level of inequality in health led to average height in Switzerland that are similar to those obtained in the Scandinavian social-democratic welfare states. Other measures such as income inequality do not have a high explanatory power for the average stature of the Swiss population.

PMID:19797002 [PubMed – indexed for MEDLINE]

Analysis

Maybe more than just showing the relationship of how divorced men are shorter than their married counterpart, there was a few other things that this 30 year study between the years 1955-1985 of Switzerland revealed. These are the main things…

better educated individuals are tallest
urban populations enjoy a height advantage over rural ones
the quality of the health care systems and equal access to it seem to have a greater impact than other redistributive aspects of the welfare state
The relatively low level of inequality in health led to average height in Switzerland that are similar to those obtained in the Scandinavian social-democratic welfare states

So if you live in the city, you are a little taller than if you lived on a farm. If you are in the tallest group, you are more likely to be well educated.

Healthcare plays a huge part. Because of how equal it is in getting healthcare for everyone, the entire average height of switzerland has reached the level of height seen in the Northern Scandinavian countries.

Be The Change You Wish To See In The World, and Create Something Of Massive Value

Years ago I was frustrated over the fact that there seemed to be no good real websites or resources on the internet I could turn to for my height increase questions. I remember finding the Height Quest website and finding it too advanced and scientific to read. At the time, I tried just focusing on exercise with little care to the science. I wanted to get taller and I was not sure whether the exercise routine I was doing at the time, which included swimming everyday, stretching, and yoga poses would really work.

After I did gain the 1/4th of an inch to push my height past the socially accepted height of 6 feet tall, I decided that I was tall enough. I moved on to other things.

After being away for almost 3 years, I came back to focus on this issue. Why did I come back to try to figure out something which no physician or surgeon has ever succeeded in before and think that I would be able to find a solution when the thousands of other people before me who did the research couldn’t figure it out?

I came to realize that a person’s life probably can only have true significance when they are in someway really benefiting the world. I looked on the internet and saw that there seemed to ba a resource for almost everything.

No matter what you were interested in, what you wanted to do, or what you wanted to learn, there was someone who had already figured it out and probably posted a great guide on how to do it.

I looked at the internet and found nothing about how to grow taller which was honest, informative, free, and authoritative. Everything was so scattered, and everyone seemes to be arguing, in deep confusion, or trying to sell a scam.

I realized that with my background, my experience, and my experiences, I had the tools to really try to make a good contribution. All my life, my family seemed to emphasize the point that having height is something that was very important. It seems to have cause certain strange psychological issues and dysmorphia in a few of my family members.

Plus, I realized that there were probably millions, if not billions of people out there who expressed the same thoughts and desires to be come taller, even after they stopped growing.

This whole area of the internet is filled with scams and fake products. There are plenty of pills with calcium carbonate and some oriental herbs which are sold as grow taller miracles. There are plenty of E-Books sold which will do nothing except drain the buyer’s wallet. There are hundreds of websites which all seem to link back to the “Grow Taller 4 Idiots” mega-scam. There are back hat SEO tactics used to push the websites higher up in the search engine rankings.

In the last year, I have reviewed at least 30 products, and none of them except maybe 1-2 has any chance of ever working even for growing kids. I have been slowly trying to cut through the B.S. and see every single method and idea proposed looking for any sign or hint of an idea. Some sections of the website has not been updated in since the beginning because I have been focused so much on the research and the content creation.

And now that it is almost an entire year since the beginning in the summer of last year, 2012. I am proud that I can provide a place where people can go to and find useful and informative articles posted which will help them see that there is real research being done. Sure, there will be many ideas and crazy proposed techniques which will lead me nowhere, but each route I go in for research seems to give me a better and better idea of what is really going on in the human body, in the bones themselves, and in the cartilage which is what really seems to make bones larger.

So if you have something in your own life that you are very frustrated about, whether personal or professional, I would like to ask that you create something to try to solve that problem. The most likely thing is that it is not just you that is suffering from that problem. Probably millions of other people have the same problem. Help make the world a better place and build something that you can be proud of even 30 years later.

Be The Change You Wish To See In The World, and Create Something Of Massive Value

So how do we do this? How can we start our own revolution, our paradigm shifting change? I say to become so good that people can no longer ignore you. I want you to start learning about something which you have always wanted to learn about, or you have always had a deep, dark obsession, madness, or passion about. As long as you can do something for free, where the money is not the thing you are really chasing, you will make it into something that people just can’t ignore, because what you have built is just so useful, so powerful, or so influential.

If you produce and create things that are so high in quality that people will instantly see the value in what you do, then the money will come.

As Pat Flynn, the internet marketer puts it which he applies the key concepts everyday…

Provide massive value
Earning massive trust
Learn and understand the needs and wants of your followers
Lead and teach by example.

The Steve Martin Autobiography entitled “So Good They Can’t Ignore You” has an amazing phrase. I took it also from the blog by Cal Newport entitled Study Hacks where his main point is for us to become so good that people can’t ignore us.

So become better at something that you know the whole world will love. Become so knowledgeable on something that people will be desperately emailing you asking you for the secret. If may take many years, if not a decade but you will one day prove all the haters and sceptics wrong. They will have to look up since you are going to be noticed by all the rest of the world. Get ready.

Writing A WikiHow Article On The Different Techniques A Person Can Try To Increase Their Height After Epiphyseal Growth Plate Closure

For the longest time I have been trying to get more exposure for this website and get ranked higher on the Google Rankings for the subject of height increase and grow taller, or more specifically the keywords “height increase” and “grow taller”. It seems that the way the search engine Google ranks websites is through mainly how high the links are to a website. When I type in a general phrase like “How To Grow Taller” or “How to Increase My Height into google, they always show a WikiHow article “How To Grow Taller” which is annoying since me and the other height increase researchers have been putting much more work, effort, dedication, and commitment into our websites to provide the quality of content and information that would actually help a person possibly grow taller. I understand why Google does what it does, but sometimes the most popular websites are not the most useful.

I decided to make a change in how I approach the search engine ranking by writing a short article for WikiHow entitled “How to Increase Your Height After Your Epiphyseal Growth Plate Close“. I personally feel that the article is much more useful and better informed than the superficial weak content of the top ranked article, which gives no real deep information on how to possibly make you taller.

The 14 Step Guide is a very short guide on how a person can do more research on this subject if they are really passionate and driven with this endeavor. I don’t expect that every person who wants to increase their height and have closed growth plates to go into this field doing the research because that is not possible but I would like if their can be more contributors to the cause. If they find something that is somehow related or relevant, send the article or PDF to me through the website email.

Example #1: The visitor named Matheus from Brazil who only recently started coming to the website have been tremendously helpful in showing where I am having making a mistake on the research. I plan to actually do a podcast episode to show the depth and breadth of the research he has been doing for over a year in trying to figure how to possibly regrow the growth plate cartilage.

Example #2: I would also like to thank Leon who provided a link to a study “Engineering Growing Tissues” which showed for the first time definitive proof that scientists and researchers in laboratories around the world have been successful in growing growth plates as well as bones that are exactly expanding in volume/lengthen through the same endochondral ossification process as the natural process.

Hopefully the article which is written on WikiHow will help push this website up in rankings and beat out much less helpful websites. The 4 Sites That I linked to as a reference are this website Natural Height Growth, the Make Me Taller Forum, Tyler’s Height Quest blog, and the Japanese Ginza Kojima Device website.

Update 6/15/2013: I was informed by a reader today that the people at WikiHow has nominated my article to be deleted for the reason that it is not a “How-To” or instructional article. I think that it is a error on their part if they can’t see that the article is much more informative and higher quality content then what the more general article on how to grow taller it.

Personally I think it is a shame that no one is willing to accept the article since it is based on real research.

In case my article on WikiHow is deleted, I decided to put the article on here as an updated post…

How to Increase Your Height After Your Epiphyseal Growth Plate Close

edits by: NaturalHeightGrowth, Lutherus (see all)

Desiring to be taller is something that many people wish to be. However the most common problem with this desire is that they person may already be past the natural growth stage. Their epiphyseal growth plates have closed. This means that the growth plate cartilage in their bones have disappeared from ossification. Most doctors like endocrinologists would say that one can no longer grow taller after the plates close. So how will you increase your height if your growth plates are closed.

1. The first thing to do is to make sure that your growth plates are actually completely closed. If you are 20 or older as a female, or 25 or older for a male, then you can assume with relative certainty that you don’t have any more growth plate cartilage. However, if you are younger then those ages, it would be better to first by an endocrinologist’s office to get an X-ray of your growth plates.

2. Most endocrinologist use two main ways to test for bone maturity. These are known as Tanner-Whitehouse Technique or the Greulich-Pyle method. The Greulich-Pyle requires the professional experience of the endocrinologists to determine the stage of bone maturation. There is a series of pictures of how the growth plates will look. The Tanner-Whitehouse method employs using a mathematical way of calculating the growth plates in the left hand to determine the amount of bone maturity.

3. Once the endocrinologist determines with relative certainty that your growth plates are gone, then it means that to grow in height, we must look into other, non-conventional ways to possibly increase our height

4. The one technique that will make a person increase in height is the limb-lengthening surgery method. Limb lengthening surgery is where the orthopaedic surgeon will make a corticonomy in the layer of cortical bone that surrounds the long bones of the legs of the subject. This surgery is known as distraction osteogenesis. Other names for this surgery is known as Callus Distraction or Callotasis.

5. There is currently an external method as well as an internal method. The external method involves putting the lengthened leg in a cylindrical metal fixator. The internal method involves putting a metal rod/nail into the intermedullary cavity of the long bone and having a way to turn that metal rod to make the bones longer.

6. The other option is to implant new growth plates into the subject. This method has already been shown to be successful in lab rabbits.

7. The newly created growth plates are grown in vitro in a laboratory. This method involves using the ideas of tissue engineering and stem cells. Progenitor pluripotent stem cells are taken from the subject from an area in their body. The progenitor stem cells are grown in a culture with some medium, usually calf serum, until they reach a certain concentration of chondrocytes in mediu, usually around 10^6/mL-10^7/mL.

8 They are then put into a scaffold made from another type of material, often alginate, hydrogel, etc. The scaffold is also embedded with a 2nd material, a growth factor or growth stimuli. The growth factor can be a peptide, TGF-Beta1 & 2, BMP-2 &7, IGF-1, or something similar that will stimulate the added chondrocytes to proliferate or grow.

9 Eventually the chondrocytes will multiply and excrete the components that make up the extracellular matrix of a cartilage. The growth factor stimuli is used up and the scaffold dissolves away leaving a completely new, functional growth plate cartilage ready for implantation.

10 Researchers in some university laboratories and government military research facilities have already been able to grow new growth plates as well as bones that are growing in volume/lengthening

11 The third option is to try a low success rate idea of lateral loading the epiphysis of the synovial joints that are between long bones in the limbs. This technique was first talked about by Biomedical Engineering professors from Indiana University.

12 The technique involves putting a reasonable heavy load, around 30-50 lbs on the proximal epiphysis of the bony epiphysis protrusion in the legs. The clamping is done dynamical at a frequency intermittently, around 2-4 loadings each minute. The exact location to push down is the lateral/side of the epiphysis of the lower leg bone, the tibia.

13 Another option is to use the Japanese patented device called Ginza Kojima turning table invented in Japan to increase your height. The machine involves a person getting strapped on a table that is spinning, moving up and down, and holding the lower leg in place while pulling the upper torso up just like a cervical traction machine.

14 The last option is to focus on stretching out the vertebrate and decompressing the spine to temporarily grow taller by upwards of 3-4 cms.

Most limb lengthening surgery is an expensive cosmetic surgery, around the $20,000-$100,000 range if one uses a USA based orthopedic surgeon. This will
Limb Lengthening surgery can give only about a maximum of 7-8 cms of extra bone length on average to each bone segment. The lengthening is restricted due to how much the muscles around the bones can stretch out as well as the metal fixators that are being pulled in length.
Recovery from Limb Lengthening Surgery takes on average from 6 months-18 months in length, including the physical therapy, etc. This does not include the annual revisits to the surgeon to make sure that the bone has reset correctly and is functionally healthy and strong enough for normal loading.

Natural Height Growth Podcast, Episode 11: I Review And Outline All The Research And Studies Matheus Has Shown To Me

This episode & post will be a very long one since a 16 year old male named Matheus from Brazil recently came to me to report about all the research he has been doing on how to possibly increase his own height.

Episode #11: I Review And Outline All The Research And Studies Matheus Has Shown To Me

This podcast episode will focus on where I will be looking at all the research and studies a guy named Matheus from Brazil has shown me since getting in contact with me since last month. I have sent an email to him asking that he come on to the podcast to discuss in his own words what he has been up to but his claim that he has weak English speaking skills means I will again be speaking alone.

Some of the stuff he has found has definitely helped in clearing up a few blind spots me and Tyler have had in our own research.

The thing is that he has been linking to so many articles, studies, and papers that it has been very hard for me to organize and arrange all the information he has thrown out at me so I will try to just break down each individual compound down to whether there are inhibiting or helping increased growth.

Chemical compounds which stimulate increased bone longitudinal growth

Vitamin K2 (aka Menaquinone) – is animal based which increases Testosterone (source)

MGP(Matrix Gla Protein-derived K2) which is produced by Vitamin K2 – inhibits the calcification of tissues and cartilages – is the major inhibitor of human body tissue calcification and seems to have much influence on chondrocytes. (Coordinated expression of matrix Gla protein is required during endochondral ossification for chondrocyte survival)

Ursolic acid – it interacts with the receptors for IGF-1, and increases sensitivity to IGF-1. (Ergo-log.com)

Asthaxanthin – good antioxidant

Cissus quadrangularis – it increases the production of IGF-1 by osteoblasts.

Glutathione – (source: Nitric oxide decreases IGF-1 receptor function in vitro; glutathione depletion enhances this effect in vivo.)

N-Acetylecysteine (NAC) – (source: N-acetylcysteine prevents nitric oxide-induced chondrocyte apoptosis and cartilage degeneration in an experimental model of osteoarthritis.)

Alfalfa (aka Ipriflavone) – (Source: Ipriflavone modulates IGF-I but is unable to restore bone in rats.)

Amomum villosum – (Source: Amomum villosum induces longitudinal bone growth in adolescent female rats.)

Herbal formula HT042 (made of three elements, 1. Astragalus (most important), 2. Eleutherococcus senticosus, 3. Phlomis umbrosa) – (Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21091251)

Commelina communis – (Source: http://www.naturalheightgrowth.com/2012/12/29/korean-medicine-extracts-hansogdan-phlomis-umbrosa-and-dalgaebi-commelina-communis-in-milk-enhances-height/)

Artemisia Capillaris – (Source: http://www.naturalheightgrowth.com/2012/12/29/kiwoomi-rice-with-eleutherococcus-senticosus-and-artemisia-capillaris-extract-shows-proof-that-it-can-increase-childrens-height-breakthrough/)

Jaoga-Yukmiwon (R) – Effects of Jaoga-Yukmiwon(R), a Korean herbal medicine, on chondrocyte proliferation and longitudinal bone growth in adolescent male rats.

Carnitine – (Supplementation of carnitine leads to an activation of the IGF-1/PI3K/Akt signalling pathway and down regulates the E3 ligase MuRF1 in skeletal muscle of rats.)

Sesamin (a lignan) – (Source: http://www.heightquest.com/search?q=sesamin)

Genistein – (Source: Mechanism involved in genistein activation of insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor expression in human breast cancer cells.)

Daidzein – (Source: Feeding daidzein to late pregnant sows influences the estrogen receptor beta and type 1 insulin-like growth factor receptor mRNA expression in newborn piglets.)

Isoflavone – bind to estrogen receptors shielded them and preventing the binding of the true hormones. Can only bind to the beta receptors. Genistein binds to the alpha receptors. Increases the synthesis of IGF-1 and VEGF, and is 100X less estrogenic than estrodial.

Letrozole -Can decrease the level of estradiol

Niacin – is the precursor to NADPH

Vitamin D3 – increases the expression of VEGF only in bone – Higher serum vitamin D concentrations are associated with longer leukocyte telomere length in women.

Tuarine – (source: http://www.heightquest.com/search?q=taurine)

IGF-1
Zinc
Lactoferrin
GH
Androgens
Hyaluronic

Chemical compounds which inhibit bone longitudinal growth

Estradiol – Matheus would cite many sources showing that this is very bad for height increase and growth… the effect of estradiol on the growth spurt at puberty is increasing GH and overexpression of VEGF… the effects of estradiol on chondrocyte senescence… reduces the proliferation of chondrocytes and enhances endochondral ossification

Retinoic acid – inhibits the proliferation of chondrocytes.

Accutane / Roaccutane (derived from retinol / vitamin A) – closes the growth plates (used by people w/ acne) Instead, choose the acne treatment with vitamin B5 and Zinc

Nitric Oxide – seems to do many things to decrease chondrocyte proliferation including decrease TGF-Beta production, induce chondrocyte apoptosis, decreases sensitivity of the IGF-1 receptors, decrease IGF-1 receptor function, etc. (Source: Nitric oxide inhibits chondrocyte response to IGF-I: inhibition of IGF-IRbeta tyrosine phosphorylation)

Corticosteroids – examples are Cortisone and Cortisol – decreasing the expression of receptors of IGF-1 and GH, and acting directly on the resting area and decrease the proliferation of chondrocytes

Homocysteine – is responsible for the shortening of telomeres during methylation, and and can also increase the effects of oxidative stress (source: Homocysteine levels and leukocyte telomere length.)

Oxidative stress – leading to senescence not just of the growth plate but of the entire organism… almost always responsible for the shortening of telomeres – a result of accumulation of excess free radicals that are generated during the cell cycle or by high levels of homocysteine – (Source: Potential involvement of oxidative stress in cartilage senescence and development of osteoarthritis: oxidative stress induces chondrocyte telomere instability and downregulation of chondrocyte function.)

Vitamin A – Converted into retinoic acid

About Growth Plate Senescence

The senescence of the growth plate is not genetically programmed…it occurs after the biochemical factors that occur during the growth spurt at puberty

Chondrocytes have an infinite proliferation and they have longer than average telomeres than all the other cells of the body. The that the cells divide, the more free radicals they produce as well as oxidative stress. The chondrocytes in the growth plate seem to proliferate and divide at a much faster rate than any other types of cells in the body. That is why they are one of the first types of cells that go extinct. the other cells don’t go completely out until old age. it seems that oxidative stress is really bad and causes cartilage senescence and chondrocyte telomere instability.

I personally did not want to look through the list of PubMed studies but for anyone who is interested, go right ahead. The truth is that I looked at the titles of this studies and some of them I have already read and am aware of.

Click Here to Subscribe via iTunes and/or leave a review for the podcast!

Length of time: 26 mins
Beginning of actual interview: 1:15

Listen Here – (to download, right click and ‘save’)